Spesifikasi Umum Divisi Bina Marga 2010

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Structural Engineering

Structural Engineering

Structural engineering is a field of civil engineering that deals with the analysis and design of structures that would safely bear or resist the loads, stresses and other forces. Structural engineers must ensure their designs satisfy given design criteria (as per the guideline or code specified), predicated on safety (e.g. structures must not collapse without due warning) or serviceability and performance (e.g. building must not sway causing discomfort to the occupants). Buildings are made to endure massive loads as well as changing climate and natural disasters.

Structural Engineers have a duty to their clients and the public to provide safe designs. Typically, the Structural Engineer is responsible for the structural design of the overall project, including specification of the design loads, issuance of design documents, and review of submittals. Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.

Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world (for example, the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK). Depending on the degree course they have studied and/or the jurisdiction they are seeking licensure in, they may be accredited (or licensed) as just structural engineers, or as civil engineers, or as both civil and structural engineers.

Responsibilties

One of the major responsibilities of a Structural Engineer is to design a structure that is friendly to the weather and climatic conditions and to the human beings. His responsibility is to deal with the problems related to the bend, twist, and collapse of buildings and houses. Role and responsibilties of structural engineers may be summarized in following point:

• The structural Engineer is responsible for designing the structure of buildings and houses in a way such that, it can meet all the requirements of the client within the needed time span.
• He is also responsible for checking and examining of whether the structures and buildings are structurally well or not.
• He must calculate and estimate the pressure, weather and stress that the component of a house or building may face from different disasters such as earth quakes flood etc.
• He is responsible for analyzing the basic structures and several components of buildings and houses.
• He must be responsible enough to check out the quality of the numerous materials such as brick, steel, timber etc. that are used for the construction of buildings.
• His responsibility is to use computer and advanced technologies for constructing the best structure.

Education Requirement

A structural engineer will typically have a four or five year undergraduate degree, followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice before being considered fully qualified. The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure that structures support and resist the loads, they are subjected to. Structural engineering is a lot more technical in nature than civil engineering in general, or than most other engineering fields. Hence, the basic has to be strong. The structural engineers are most often subjected with the structural elements like Columns, Beams, Slabs, Trusses, Plates, Arches, Shells, Catenaries and their behaviours under different loading and stress conditions. Hence, they must be familiar with these terms. Beside these, they must have sound knowledge of properties of different kind of building or construction materials. Some of the common building materials are:

• Iron: Wrought iron, cast iron, steel and stainless steel.
• Concrete: Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed concrete
• Aluminium
• Masonry
• Alloy
• Composite Materials
• Timber
• Other structural materials: Carbon fibre, Fibre reinforced plastic, Roofing materials, Mudbrick, etc.

Salary & Job Profile

In USA, the average entry level salary (0-2 yrs experience) for Structural engineer is $53,100. The employee may require the necessary bachelor's degree in area of specialty. Main job is to design load-bearing structures or structural elements, such as buildings, bridges, or roadways perform analysis of building materials for use in construction develop blueprints or specifications for use during construction and ensure all projects comply with applicable codes and regulations. They also determines cause of structural failures, damages, and defects through site investigations and provides reports detailing investigations and assessment of damages to the structure. With 2-4yrs of experience in this field, the expected average salary is $68,300. He/She may relies on limited experience and judgment to plan and accomplish goals and work under general supervision. A certain degree of creativity and latitude is required. The employee has to be familiar with a variety of the field's concepts, practices, and procedures. For experience of 4-6yrs, the average salary is $88,100. The employee may have to lead and direct the work of others. A wide degree of creativity and latitude is expected. For eperience of 6-8yrs, the average salary is $104,300.

Summary:

Experience	Average Salary (per annum)
0 to 2 years	$53,100
2 to 4 years	$68,300
4 to 6 years	$88,100
6 to 8 years	$104,300

Continental Drift

Definition 

It is believed that there was a single great continent mass in the beginning which broke up into smaller units with the passage of time. The brokencontinental blocks started separating out and drifting apart over underlying elastic and viscous substratum under the influence of gravitational forces.


Nature of Continents and Sea Floor
The continents are the slabs of sial (crust) underlain by the basaltic layer. The ocean floors are essentially the basaltic. However, there are thin patches of sial present along the sea floors. Also the outer boundaries of continental blocks of each group are marked by orogenic belts (mountain ranges).


Background of this concept

The geological studies on different continents indicate that the continent have been experiencing changing climates in the geological past. Places having warm climates now were at one time cold region so. This raises the question that, was it the climate which was changing or the continents shifted their positions. The presence of similar plant and animal fossils and the identical geological structures on these widely separate continents also needs explanation that whether the in-between block have sunk or the continents were initially united and separated later on. The mountain building process also demand explanation for the horizontal compression and is related to the continental drift. The outer margins of the continents have mountain ranges marking their boundaries.

Wegener’s hypothesis of continental drift:
Wegener observed that the shorelines of some continents looked like they could fit into the shorelines of others, almost like a Jigsaw puzzle. Wegener also realized that there were geological elements common to both shorelines. Rocks of around 200 millions year of age (200 Ma) were similar on both sides and they contained identical land-based beasties (e.g. dinosaurs). He hypothesized that in the past (200 Ma), Africa and South America were united together. Not only that, he was able to put most of the continents together into a supercontinent, he called Pangaea. He published a map shown in fig-1 in 1912 and his idea soon became known as Continental Drift.


Hypothesis
He believed in the existence of single great continental mass, a compressed combination of Laurasia and Gondwanaland, to which he gave the name Pangaea. Where northern group of continents comprises Laurasia and southern group comprises Gondwanaland. This great continental mass was surrounded by a vast ocean called Panthalassa.

With the passage of time this single continental block, Pangaea, broke into pieces which started drifting apart, taking the present set-up. Along with continental drift, he also believed in the wandering of the poles. According to him the poles have been migrating from place to place.


Drifting Directions

According to Wegener the drift was equator-ward and west-ward. He ascribed the equator-ward movement of continents to the gravitational attraction caused by the earth’s equatorial bulge; and west-ward movement to the force of attraction caused by the sun and the moon. The equator-ward drift is stated to be responsible for the formation of the Alpine-Himalayan mountain ranges; and the west-ward drift responsible for the formation of Rockies and Andes mountain ranges. The gaps left in between the continents made the oceans.

Wegner’s hypothesis of continental drift very nicely explains the past climate variations , similarities in the geological structures and fossil content of the separated parts of the earth’s crust (continents) and mountain building.

What is Civil Engineering ?

What is civil engineering? It is one of those branches of knowledge which properly take their places both amongst the sciences and the arts; for a science consists of a collection of general principles or truths relating to any particular subject, while an art are the application of those principles to practice, for the purpose of affecting some particular object. The science of Civil Engg, then, informs us of the general principles of mechanics and construction, and teaches us in what to ascertain the strains to which every part of a structure will be exposed, and of the dimensions and proportions which should be given to each, in order that they may be able to sustain such strains without injury. And the Art of Civil Engg consists in the application of these principles to the actual construction of various works, and their judicious use and modification to meet the several contingencies which arise in practice.

In general, it is the branch of engineering which deals with the planning, design, construction and maintenance of the structures like buildings, roads, bridges, canals, dams, water supply and treatment systems etc. It has a broader spectrum and comprises of many sub-disciplines under it. The branches of civil engineering are structural engg, construction engg, geotechnical engg, urban/town/municipal engg, environmental engg, transportation engg, surveying, water resource engg, tunnel engg, earthquake engg, material engg and coastal engg.

The civil engineering profession recognizes the reality of limited natural resources, the desire for sustainable practices (including life-cycle analysis and sustainable design techniques), and the need for social equity in the consumption of resources. Surfacely saying, the basic responsibilities of a civil engineer is to plan and design a structure and analyze its various aspects, make a regular inspection in the site to ensure that the construction is going according to the plan and to make the necessary amendments in the project if required during the course of construction. Civil engineer has to make sure that the project is cost effective and structure is of required strength and safety. The civil engineer holds the safety, health, and welfare of the public paramount. Civil engineering projects and systems should compliance with governmental guidelines and regulations; should be built economically to function properly with a minimum of maintenance and repair while withstanding anticipated usage and weather; and should conserve energy and allow hazard-free construction while providing healthful, safe, and environmentally sound utilization by society.

In early human days, it was limited to construction of roads and building, but with advancement in science and technology, and with development of human civilization, this field has made a significant leap. From high-rise buildings to huge massive dams, from large tunnels to canals and bridges, the scope of civil engineering has magnificently broadened with time.

Megastructures

The artificial "palm island" of dubai is one of the civil engineering wonder of today's time. It has three islands; they are Palm Jumeirah, Palm Jebel Ali and Palm Deira. These islands are build in such a way that they seem like palm trees from above. Jebel Ali and Jumeirah, each have a trunk and 17 leaves and these both of the islands are surrounded by a crescent shaped island that act as a reef to the Dubai palm island. Started on 2002, its construction was completed on 2006.

The another megastructure in the field of civil engineering is the longest suspension bridge (Akashi Kaikyo Bridge) of Japan. Its main span length is 1,991metres. This bridge serve at the Kobe-Awaji route at Japan.

Millau Viaduct, located in Southern France, is the world tallest bridge. It is a cable stayed road bridge that spans the valley of the river Tarn near Millau. Its construction cost was around €400million. It's one of the mast's summit is at height of 343m making it world's tallest bridge.
Similarly, the overall longest bridge of the world is Danyang-Kunshan Grand Bridge of China with the length of 164,800m.

Dubai has stunned world first with the artificial "palm island" then with the tallest high-rise building Burj Khalifa. Burj Khalifa also known as Burj Dubai prior to its inauguration is currently the tallest building of the world with height of 828m. Its construction was started on 21st September 2004 and was finished(exterior as well) on 1st October 2009. It was officially inaugurated on 4th January 2010. The total cost of project was around US$ 1.5 billion.

The Three Gorges Dam is the world's largest power station in terms of the installed capacity (20,300 MW). But it comes second to Itaipu Dam (located between Brazil & Paraguay) in terms of electricity generation annually. It is located in the Yiling district, Yichang, Hubei province, China. It has 32 main turbine(francis turbine) of 700MW rated capacity each and 2 smaller generators of capacity 50MW each. It is the river run-off type dam built across the Yangtze river. Similarly, Nurek Dam of Tajikistan is the tallest dam with height of 300m. Whereas, Kariba Dam of Zimbabwe forms the largest reservoir of world by volume of water with nominal volume of 180.6 km³.

History of Civil Engineering

It is difficult to determine the history of emergence and beginning of civil engineering, however, that the history of civil engineering is a mirror of the history of human beings on this earth. Man used the old shelter caves to protect themselves of weather and harsh environment, and used a tree trunk to cross the river, which being the demonstration of ancient age civil engineering.

Civil Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engg may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.

Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engg and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably. The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions.

Around 2550 BC, Imhotep, the first documented engineer, built a famous stepped pyramid for King Djoser located at Saqqara Necropolis. With simple tools and mathematics he created a monument that stands to this day. His greatest contribution to engineering was his discovery of the art of building with shaped stones. Those who followed him carried engineering to remarkable heights using skill and imagination.

Ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the oldest older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km,) the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T’ien under orders from Ch’in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC) and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.

Other remarkable historical structures are Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan built in 691 BC; Li Ping's irrigation projects in China (around 220 BC); Julius Caesar's Bridge over the Rhine River built in 55 BC, numerous bridges built by other Romans in and around Rome(e.g. the pons Fabricius); Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct, Nimes, France) built in 19 BC; the extensive system of highways the Romans built to facilitate trading and (more importantly) fast manoeuvring of legions; extensive irrigation system constructed by the Hohokam Indians, Salt River, AZ around 600 AD; first dykes defending against high water in Friesland, The Netherlands around 1000 AD; El Camino Real - The Royal Road, Eastern Branch, TX and Western Branch, NM (1500s AD).

Machu Picchu, Peru, built at around 1450, at the height of the Inca Empire is considered an engineering marvel. It was built in the Andes Mountains assisted by some of history’s most ingenious water resource engineers. The people of Machu Picchu built a mountain top city with running water, drainage systems, food production and stone structures so advanced that they endured for over 500years.

A treatise on Architecture, Book called Vitruvius' De Archiectura, was published at 1AD in Rome and survived to give us a look at engineering education in ancient times. It was probably written around 15 BC by the Roman architect Vitruvius and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus, as a guide for building projects.

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.

One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes’ screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.

Educational & Institutional history of civil engineering

In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first engineering school, The National School of Bridges and Highways, France, was opened in 1747. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse. In 1771, Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.

In 1818, world’s first engineering society, the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognizing civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as: “Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, material science, geography, geology, soil, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.”

The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.

NOAH - Seperti Seharusnya (2012) @ 320kbps (CDRip)

NOAH - Seperti Seharusnya (2012) @ 320kbps (CDRip)

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Artist............NOAH
Album.............Seperti Seharusnya
Realese...........16 September 2012
Genre.............Pop
Language..........Indonesia
Label.............Musica Studio's
Total Length......43:20
MP3 Bitrate.......320Kbps [CD Rip]

Website...........www.noah-site.com
Fanspage..........NOAH | Facebook
Twitter...........twitter.com/NOAH_ID

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Tracklisting:

Song Title Time
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1. Raja Negeriku 4:36
2. Jika Engkau 4:31
3. Separuh Aku 4:31
4. Hidup Untukmu, Mati Tanpamu 5:27
5. Ini Cinta 3:23
6. Terbangun Sendiri 4:39
7. Sendiri Lagi 4:05
8. Demi Kita 4:09
9. Tak Lagi Sama 5:16
10. Puisi Adinda 2:43
11. Bonus Track 0:50

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Download Links:
Full Album @ 320kbps:

http://www.sharebeast.com/sq4y2rd1ru4v

http://www.mediafire.com/?mof58yo5pu7fad9

http://aavg.net/1z02aeu8ykqp

http://www.4shared.com/rar/Ij_deOGJ/NOAH_-_Seperti_Seharusnya__320.html

Download Links:
Full Album @ 160kbps:

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http://aavg.net/3hnimustc9a0

http://www.mediafire.com/?20ay4fx48tjc0lp

http://www.4shared.com/rar/GdMd4yGW/NOAH_-_Seperti_Seharusnya__160.html

Pasword needed to extract files: bent0811

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